Safnil Arsyad

Selasa, 23 Agustus 2011

English for MMAP Students: BAB 8

BAB VIII

POLA ABSTRAK ARTIKEL/LAPORAN PENELITIAN DALAM BAHASA INGGRIS

1. Kompetensi

Setelah mempelajari dan mengerjakan latihan-latihan dalam BAB VIII ini diharapkan mahasiswa telah memiliki kompetensi sebagai berikut:

a) pengetahuan tentang komponen-komponen yang harus ada dalam abstrak tesis berbahasa Inggris;

b) pengetahuan tentang komponen-komponen yang boleh ada dalam abstrak tesis berbahasa Inggris;

c) keterampilan dalam menulis abstrak tesis berbahasa Inggris; dan

d) pengetahuan dalam mengalihbahasakan abstrak tesis dalam bahasa Indonesia ke dalam bahasa Inggris.

2. Pengantar

Seorang mahasiswa magister manajemen pendidikan (MMP) FKIP Universitas Bengkulu harus menulis abstrak tesisnya dalam bahasa Inggris untuk disertakan dalam tesis tersebut. Penulisan abstrak ini dapat dilakukan dengan cara langsung menulis dalam bahasa Inggris atau dengan mengalihbahasakannya dari abstrak yang sudah ditulis dalam bahasa Indonesia.

Abstrak tesis merupakan ringkasan (dalam bentuk yang sangat ringkas) dari sebuah tesis yang disajikan di bagian awal tesis dengan tujuan agar pembaca dapat memahami secara ringkas penelitian yang dituliskan dalam tesis tersebut. Abstrak juga bertujuan agar pembaca tertarik membaca tesis tersebut sehingga terus membacanya ke bagian-bagian selanjutnya dan tidak hanya berhenti setelah membaca abstrak. Dengan demikian abstrak harus ditulis sekomunikatif dan menarik mungkin sehingga dapat menarik perhatian pembaca.

Abstrak tesis juga harus ditulis dalam bahasa Inggris. Hal ini dimaksudkan disamping untuk memenuhi aturan yang terdapat dalam panduan penulisan tesis program MMP juga agar tesis tersebut dapat pula diakses secara internasional; misalnya apabila tesis-tesis tersebut dipajang dalam situs di internet. Pembaca yang tidak dapat berbahasa Indonesia paling kurang dapat membaca abstrak tesis tersebut.

3. Komponen yang Harus dan Dapat Ada Dalam Abstrak

Sebuah abstrak tesis dalam dalam bahasa Inggris minimal harus berisikan tujuan penenlitian (the objectives or aims of the research), metode penelitian (research methods), temuan atau hasil penelitian (findings or results of the data analyses), dan kata-kata kunci (key words). Abstrak juga dapat berisikan komponen-komponen tambahan seperti, pengantar terhadap topik atau masalah penelitian (introduction to research topic or problem) dan kesimpulan dan/atau implikasi dari hasil atau temuan penelitianb atau daran-saran yang relevan (conclusion, implication and relevant suggestions). Perhatikan contoh-contoh abstrak berikut ini.

Abstract

The purposes of this study are, firstly, to investigate the relationship between pragmatic knowledge and language proficiency, i.e. whether the learners with different proficiency levels perform differently in a pragmatic test or not. Secondly, to explore the relationship between gender and language proficiency and pragmatic knowledge. That is, the study examined whether there is any significant difference between the performance of males & females regarding their pragmatic knowledge and language proficiency. 120 university students including 60 freshmen and 60 seniors majoring in English Translation from Bandar Abbas Azad University were selected randomly. The participants were placed in the beginning, intermediate and advanced levels based on the results of the proficiency (TOEFL) test. Then, a pragmatic competence test (MDCT) was used to determine the extent of participants' pragmatic knowledge. The calculated data were analyzed through a combination of descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings of the study obtained through statistical analyses indicated that a) there was no significant relationship between pragmatic knowledge and language proficiency. In other words, the learners with different proficiency levels did not perform differently in the pragmatic test; b) female participants performed better in pragmatic and proficiency tests.

Key words: Pragmatic Knowledge, Language Proficiency, EFL Learners

Dalam contoh abtrak di atas tujuan penelitiannya adalah yang digarisbawahi, metode peneliannya adalah yang dicetak miring sedangkan hasil atau temuan penelitian adalah yang dicetak tebal. Dalam abstrak di atas tidak terdapat pengantar terhadap topik atau masalah penelitian maupun kesimpulan/implikasi dan/atau saran dari hasil atau temuan penelian. Perhatikan contoh abstrak selanjutnya berikut ini.

Abstract

Comprehending texts is sometimes difficult to achieve. The readers need more than just recalling information given in a text. When readers can read texts with comprehension and fluency but they do not reflect on or respond to what they read in a meaningful way, they neglect one of the most powerful and long-lasting benefits of reading. Therefore, reader responses are significant to promote educational and intellectual growth.

This study was mainly trying to find out the responses produced by the students after reading a text. It was also meant to observe if higher order thinking was evident in reader responses.

The study used a qualitative method by employing four instruments; namely class observation, documentations, questionnaire and interviews done to the students and the lecturer of a reading class. The document analysis was used to figure out what kinds of responses produced by the students and to observe if higher order thinking was evident in the data. The observations were conducted to gain picture of how reader response was applied. A questionnaire was distributed to students to obtain data on whether there was higher order thinking in the responses. Based on the information from the questionnaire, interviews were conducted to clarify the answers of the questions and to gain more insight into response writing.

In relation to the first question, namely the types of responses produced by the students, the study revealed that the responses produced by students were different in each individual at different time. This study only focused on restatement, affective response, and associative response. However, the majority of the responses found in the students’ response journals were restatement and associative response. Regarding the second question, i.e. whether higher order thinking was found on the students’ response journals, the research revealed that higher order thinking was evident in the students’ response journals. The majority of the students demonstrated comprehension and synthesis level of thinking. It was also revealed that the more dynamic the response was, the more Higher Order Thinking levels were found in the response. When the students were able to talk about the topic in the reading and make wider connection with, they displayed more higher order thinking level. When students wrote many kinds of responses in a response journal, they were likely to produce many higher order thinking levels.

It was expected that the findings of this study would be able to give teachers a picture on the common response the students produced and on what kind of action was likely to take to help students produce more than a “mere” response. Each student was unique and was able to respond differently depending on the circumstances. Therefore, teachers should select materials which meet students’ concern as to make the reading meaningful for the students. Meaningfulness of the text may result in better investment on students’ part. As a result, teachers can stimulate genuine involvement from the students. By using reader response, finally, teachers were expected to be able to promote higher order thinking to the students.

Key words: promoting, students’ responses, higher order thinking, reading texts

Dalam contoh abstrak di atas, terdapat sekurang-kurangnya lima komponen yaitu, pengantar terhadap topik atau masalah penelitian (yang digarisbawahi), tujuan penelitian (yang dicetak miring), metode penelitian (yang dicetak tebal), hasil atau temuan penelitian, implikasi dan saran berdasarkan hasil penelian (yang menggunakan font atau bentuk huruf yang berbeda), serta kata-kata kunci (key words).

Petunjuk: Analisislah abstrak-abstrak berikut ini dan tentukan komponen-komponen apa saja yang terdapat di dalamnya!

Abstract

This study is aiming at measuring student achievement and clarifying their problems in English for Business in the Department of English, Faculty of Letters, National University of Laos. A researcher-made-test was applied to 332 final year (Year 5) students. The test was in multiple choice format and the questions were based on the textbooks used in English for Economics and English for Business taught in year 3 and year 4 respectively. It was found that overall achievement of the test was quite unsatisfactory. The rate of right answer was 54.1%. By analyzing the mistakes, three major problems were found: First, the final year students still had problems in basic English. For example in reading, they made mistakes not because the texts were concerned to business, but because they did not know sentence patterns and basic vocabulary. Second, maybe because the students were weak in English but the textbooks were written in English, and all explanation was given in English, students could not acquire the content they had been taught. Present teaching of English for Economics and English of Business was not productive. Third, students did not know the very basic terms and concepts of business. For example only 23.8% of the students could choose the right definition of “an economy” in Lao, while 34.9% chose “small and medium enterprises” as the right answer. The result strongly suggested that the actual teaching of English for Business should be totally revised.

Key Words: Curriculum development, English for Business, business content (Diambil dari salah satu makalah yang disajikan dalam ASIA TEFL 2008 di Bali)

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

The present study evaluates the relative effectiveness of three types of input-based instruction, comprehension-based instruction (proactive explicit information + the structured input task), structured input instruction (the structured input task), and consciousness-raising instruction (the consciousness-raising task) for teaching English polite requestive forms, involving 60 Japanese learners of English. Treatment group performance was compared to that of a control group on the pre-tests, post-tests, and follow-up tests: a planned discourse completion test, a planned role-play test, an unplanned listening judgment test, and a planned acceptability judgment test. The results of data analysis indicate that the three treatment groups performed significantly better than the control group, but the comprehension-based instruction group did not maintain the positive effects of the treatment between the post-test and follow-up test in the listening test.

(Diambil dari salah satu makalah yang disajikan dalam ASIA TEFL 2008 di Bali)

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the model of English teacher interpersonal behavior and the correlations between students’ perceptions of their English teacher’s interpersonal behavior and their ESL exam results. The American version of the QTI was used and validated with a sample of 30 students in a secondary international classroom in Jakarta. The study involved 129 year 11 secondary school students who enrolled in international classes in 6 government schools in Jakarta. LISREL analysis showed that the students perceived their teachers to be understanding, helpful/friendly and good leaders, who also allowed them to have responsibility and freedom, although they were sometimes uncertain and dissatisfied. The t-value revealed that a correlation exists between teacher interpersonal behavior and student ESL exam results. There were 8 latent variables of the QTI and 6 of them were significantly associated with the exam results. Positive correlations were found in leadership, being helpful/friendly, understanding, and student responsibility/freedom. Negative correlations were found in uncertainty and being dissatisfied.

Keywords: Teachers interpersonal behavior, Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI), student achievement of English class

(Diambil dari salah satu makalah yang disajikan dalam ASIA TEFL 2008 di Bali)

Abstract

The importance of vocabulary is not covert to anyone; it is axiomatic that most of the students at language learning centers carry word books and dictionaries with them not grammar books or some other ones. These facts are evident of the second-to-none characteristic of vocabulary. Regarding the importance of vocabulary in language learning situations the researchers adopted a systematic and mostly practiced method which was teaching vocabulary through word formation.

The concept of reading strategies has become quite familiar to most professionals in teaching English as a foreign language. There are reading strategies galore in the field of language teaching each of which will be viable in its own proper situation. The researchers have applied teaching word formation knowledge to paragraph restatement and inferencing strategies.

The present study aimed at teaching some prefixes and suffixes of different categories regarding their frequency and applicability. A group of sixty university students were homogenized by a TOEFL test. The participants (both control group and experimental group, EACH 30) attended the teaching sessions and the results revealed a significant progress regarding vocabulary learning in both groups. But independent sample tests revealed that there is no significant difference between the two groups in terms of paragraph restatement and inferencing.

(Diambil dari salah satu makalah yang disajikan dalam ASIA TEFL 2008 di Bali)

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Kata-kata atau Kalimat yang Sering Dipakai Dalam Abstrak

Kata-kata atau kalimat-kalimat yang sering dipakai dalam abstrak berbahasa Inggris adalah sebagai berikut:

A. Tujuan Penelitian (The Objectives of the Study)

1. The objectives of this study are ...

2. The aims of this study are …

3. This study is aimed at …

4. This study is an attempt to …

5. The purposes of this study are …

6. The present study evaluates …

7. The present study investigates …

8. Dll.

B. Metode Penelitian (Research Methods)

1. The method used in this study was …

2. The design of this study was …

3. The population and samples in this study were …

4. The instruments used to collect the data of this study were

5. … people became the subjects of this study.

6. The samples in this study were selected from the population by using … technique.

7. The data for this study were obtained from …

8. … teachers/students involved in this study.

9. The data analysis technique used in this study was …

10. Dll.

C. Hasil/Temuan Penelitian (Research Results/Findings)

1. The data analysis reveals that …

2. The results of this study show that …

3. The data analysis results show that …

4. The results of this study are …

5. The findings of this study are …

6. Dll.

D. Kesimpulan, Implikasi, dan Saran (Conclusion, Implication, and Suggestion)

1. It can be concluded that …

2. A conclusion that can be drawn from the findings of this study is that …

3. The implication of the findings of this study is that …

4. It is suggested that …

5. The results of this study suggest that …

6. Several conclusions can be drawn from the results of this study; first …

7. The findings of this study suggest that

8. It can be suggested that …

9. Dll.

Kata-kata dan kalimat-kalimat di atas dapat dipakai sesuai dengan kondisi atau kebutuhan mahasiswa sesuai dengan tesis mereka. Kata-kata atau kalimat di atas hanya sebagian dari yang sering dipakai dalam abstrak berbahasa Inggris; terdapat banyak pilihan kata atau kalimat lain. Semakin banyak mahasiswa membaca contoh abstrak berbahasa Inggris semakin banyak pula pilihan kata atau kalimat yang dapat dipakai dalam menulis abstrak tesis berbahasa Inggris mereka sendiri.

Petunjuk: Alihbahasakanlah abstrak berikut ini ke dalam

bahasa Inggris!

Abstrak

Penelitian ini merupakan sebuah penelitian deskriptif yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui aktivitas-aktivitas yang disukai siswa kelas 2 SMA N 2 Kota Bengkulu pada kelas Intenasional pada tahun pelajaran 2008/2009 dalam belajar bahasa Inggris di luar jam pelajaran bahasa Inggris. Populasi dari penelitian ini adalah seluruh siswa kelas SMA N 2 Kota Bengkulu pada kelas Intenasional pada tahun pelajaran 2008/2009. Penelitian ini menggunakan teknik total sampling dengan jumlah sampel 37 orang siswa. Data diperoleh dengan menggunakan angket/kuesioner yang terdiri dari 27 buah pernyataan. Untuk menganalisis data, peneliti menggunakan rumus P = F/N x 100%. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa aktivitas belajar bahasa Inggris yang dilakukan oleh siswa kelas Internasional 2 SMA N 2 Kota Bengkulu tahun pelajaran 2008/2009 di luar jam pelajaran bahasa Inggris di sekolah bermacam-macam. Dalam setiap keterampilan bahasa Inggris, ada satu aktivitas yang paling disukai, yaitu: (1) menonton film-film berbahasa Inggris (78.4%) untuk kegiatan menyimak, (2) bernyanyi lagu-lagu berbahasa Inggris (91.8%) untuk kegiatan berbicara, (3) membaca artikel-artikel berbahasa Inggris di internet (78.4%) untuk kegiatan membaca, dan (4) berkirim SMS berbahasa Inggris kepada teman (86.5 %) untuk kegiatan menulis. Jadi, para siswa cenderung lebih menyukai kegiatan yang bersifat mengibur dari pada kegiatan yang terlalu berkaitan dengan akademik, dan kegiatan individu dari pada kegiatan kelompok.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

English for MMAP Students: BAB 7

BAB VII

POLA PARAGRAF DALAM TEKS BAHASA INGGRIS LANJUTAN

1. Kompetensi

Setelah mempelajari dan mengerjakan latihan-latihan dalam BAB VII ini diharapkan mahasiswa telah memiliki kompetensi sebagai berikut:

a) pengetahuan dan keterampilan untuk membagi informasi dalam sebuah paragraf berdasarkan subtopik;

b) pengetahuan dan keterampilan untuk membagi informasi dalam sebuah paragraf berdasarkan tingkat keumumannya (level of generality);

c) pengetahuan dan keterampilan dalam membagi informasi berdasarkan waktu, tempat, dan hubungan sebab-akibat; dan

d) pengetahuan dan keterampilan dalam menentukan ‘outline’ sebuah paragraf.

2. Pengantar

Pengetahuan dan keterampilan tentang komponen-komponen serta pola-pola paragraf sangat diperlukan oleh seorang mahasiswa yang sedang berusaha meningkatkan klancaran (fluency) dan pemahaman (comprehension) mereka dalam membaca teks berbahasa Inggris. Pengetahuan tentang ciri-ciri paragraf teks berbahasa Inggris terutama teks akademik atau ilmiah akan membantu mereka dalam proses membaca karena dengan pengetahuan tersebut mereka akan membentuk prediksi-prediksi sebelum membaca teks tersebut.

3. Membagi Informasi Berdasarkan Subtopik

Sebuah paragraf yang baik biasanya mempunyai hanya satu topik, tapi kadang-kadang sebuah topik mempunyai dua atau lebih subtopik. Perhatikan cont

Oh berikut ini.

The people in the United States speak the same language as the people in Great Britain. However, American English is different from British English in many ways. First, the sounds of American English are different from the sound of British English. For example, most Americans pronounce the ‘r’ in the word ‘car’ but most Britons do not. Most Americans pronounce the ‘dictionary’ like this /dik-shun-ar-y/, but the British pronounce it like this /dik-shun-ry/. Some spellings are also different. People in Britain write ‘colour’ and ‘centre’, but people in the United States write ‘color’ and ‘center’. Finally some words are different. People in the United States use ‘gasoline’ in their cars, but people in Britain use ‘petrol’. Gasoline and petrol are the same thing, but the Americans and the British use diferent words for it.

Dalam contoh di atas penulis mengembangkan topik paragraf dengan menggunakan tiga subtopik: sounds, spellings and words. Apabila digambarkan paragraf di atas dengan sebuah diagram maka dia akan menjadi seperti berikut ini.

Differences between American and British English
Sounds	spellings	Words
American English pronounce the ‘r’ in car.	British English: colour and centre	American English: gasoline
British English do not pronounce the ‘r’ in car.	American English: color and center	British English: petrol

Directions : Look at Paragraph 1 and Paragraph 2 in Exercise 1-16. Find the subtopics of each paragraph and write them in the spaces.

PARAGRAPH 1

TOPIC : a. method for remembering new words

Subtopics : 1.

PARAGRAPH 2

TOPIC : uses for computer chips

Subtopics : 1.

Now look at Paragraph 3. The topic of Paragraph 3 is "electric cars," and the paragraph tells us four things that electric cars do not do. Find the four things that electric cars do not do and write them in the spaces.

TOPIC : electric cars

Subtopics : 1. They do not use

2. They do not make

3. They are not

4. They cannot ______

4. Membagi Informasi Berdasarkan Tingkat Keumumannya

Biasanya sebuah paragraf diawali dengan informasi yang umum dan kemudian dikembangkan dengan memberikan informasi-informasi yang lebih khusus. Perhatikan contoh berikut ini.

There are basically two types of families: nuclear family and extended family. The nuclear family usually consists of two parents (mother and father) and their children. The mother and father from the nucleus, or center , of the nuclear family. The children stay in the nuclear family until they marry. Then they form new nuclear family.

Kalau paragraf dalam contoh di atas kita uraikan berdasarkan tingkat keumumam informasi yang terdapat di dalamnya, maka kita dapat membuat diagram seperti berikut ini.

Level 1	There are basically two types of families: nuclear family and extended family
Level 2	The nuclear family usually consists of two parents (mother and father) and their children
Level 3	The mother and father from he nucleus, or center, of the nuclear family	The children stay in the nuclear family until they marry
		Then they form new nuclear family

Seperti terlihat dalam diagram di atas, paragraf dapat dibagi ke dalam tidak bagian berdasarkan tingkat keumuman informasi di dalamnya. Pada level 1 terdapat informasi yang umum dan dilanjutkan dengan informasi yang semakin khusus pada tingkat-tingkat berikutnya.

Directions: Complete the diagrams to show how the writer organized the information in each paragraph.

PARAGRAPH 1

Libraries can be divided into two major groups: public libraries and academic libraries. Public libraries include state, county, and city libraries. A public library provides library services for all of the people in the community; academic library, on the other hand, is generally a university library. It provides services for students, professors, and other members of the academic. Because they are for all of the people, public libraries are a good source of books and magazines for entertainment. Most of the books and magazines in academic library, however, are for research.

General : pulbic and academic libraries

Specific 1: public libraries > state, city, etc. libraries

Specific 2 : academic library > university libraries

Additional info 1: collection about public libraries

Additional info 2 : collection about academic libraries

PARAGRAPH 2

Different language learners have different purposes for learning a new language. Some people learn a second language in order to learn about the culture of the people who speak that language. They may be interested in the history and the customs of these people, for example, or they may want to study the literature of the language. Other language learners want to travel to other countries. They need to know the languages of those countries so that they can talk to people and understand what they say. They want to make friends with the people they meet. Many people learn languages for professional reasons. These people want to learn more about their fields by studying in the countries or reading books and journals in different languages. They often need to use other languages in their work.

GI : different purposes of learning a new language

SI 1: to learn the culture of the people

SI 2: to travel to the country

SI 3: for professional reason

PARAGRAPH 3

To explain what I mean by a "typical American family," I will use my host family as an example. Mr. and Mrs. Smith have been married for twenty years. They have two children: a boy and a girl. Mr. Smith is an engineer with a well-known computer company. He enjoys his Job and has been very successful at it. Mrs. Smith works part-time as a teacher and helps organize activities for the International Student Association in her spare time. Their son Dan is nineteen and a law student at a university in a different part of the country. He visits his family during Christmas and Easter vacations and works in a factory during the summer. Sarah, their daughter, is seventeen and will finish high school this year. She lives with her parents now but plans to move to an apartment when she graduates from high school. She wants to become an artist.

5. Membagi Informasi Berdasarkan Waktu, Tempat dan Hubungan Sebab-Akibat

Berbagai cara dipakai oleh penulis untuk mengorganisir informasi di dalam sebuah paragraf. Kadangkala informasi dalam sebuah paragraf disusun berdasarkan urutan waktu kejadian, berdasarkan tempat, atau berdasarkan urutan sebab-akibat. Perhatikanlah contoh berikut ini.

Rent control began fairly recently in the United States. Few American cities had rent control before World War II. During World War II, the U.S. government imposed rent control on all the cities in the U.S. After World War II, only one city –New York- continued rent control. At the beginning of the 1980s nearly one-fifth of the people in the US lived in cities with rent control.

Sebagai dapat dilihat dalam contoh di atas informasi dalam paragraf disusun berdasarkan urutan waktu kejadian. Apabila paragraf di atas kita bagi berdasarkan informasi urutan waktu kita akan mendapatkan diagram seperti di bawah ini.

Time	Information about rent control
Before World War II	Few cities had rent control
During World War II	All cities had rent control
After World War II	Only New York continued rent control
Beginning of 1980s	Nearly one-fifth of the people in the US lived in cities with rent control

Sebagian paragraf disusun berdasarkan informasi tentang tempat (place) seperti kota, daerah, negara, lokasi berdasarkan letak geografis dan lain lain sebagainya. Perhatikan contoh berikut ini.

The cost of renting an apartment varies from one American city to another. In most cities, the rent for one-bedroom apartment is more than $250 per month. In some smaller cities such as Louisville, Kentuky or Jacksonville, Florida, the rent is less, but in larger cities the rent is more. For example, if you live in Los Angeles, you must pay $400 or more to rent a one-bedroom apartment, and the same apartment rents for $625 and up in Chicago. The most expensive rents in the U.S. are in New York, where you must pay at least $700 a month to rent a one-bedroom apartment in most parts of the city.

Informasi di dalam paragraf contoh di atas disusun berdasarkan susunan tempat dan harga sewa apartemen mulai dari yang murah sampai ke yang mahal. Kalau kita gambarkan pola pengembangan paragraf di atas akan kita dapatkan diagram sebagai berikut.

Place	Rent for One-bedroom Apartment
Most American cities	> $ 250
Smaller cities e.g. Louisville Jacksonville	< $ 250
Larger cities e.g. Los Angeles Chicago New York	> $ 250 > $ 400 > $ 625 > $ 700

Ada juga paragraf yang disusun berdasarkan informasi sebab-akibat (cause and result). Perhatikan contoh berikut ini.

The price of shoes are related to the number of shoes the producers make. For example, the price of shoes was high last month, so the shoe producers made more shoes. However, the consumers did not buy more shoes because of the high price. As a result, the shoe producers reduced the price of the shoes so that the consumers could buy more shoes. At the same time, the shoe producers reduced their production of shoes because the prices went down.

Sebagaimana dapat dilihat dalam contoh di atas informasi dalam paragraf disusun berdasarkan hubungan sebab akibat dengan mengunakan kata-kata penghubung khusus yang sesuai seperti ‘because’, ‘so’ dan ‘as a result’. Kalau paragraf di atas kita gambarkan dalam sebuah diagram kita akan dapatkan diagram seperti di bawah ini.

Cause	Results
Price of shoes (up)	Shoe production (up)
High price	Consumer did not buy more
Consumer did not buy more	Price of shoes (down)
Price of shoes (down)	Consumer could buy more
Price of shoes (down)	Shoe production (down)

Directions: Here are some more paragraphs with notes, but the notes are not complete. Read the paragraphs and complete the notes.

1. A number of utopian communities sprang up in the United States during the last century. In 1814, George Rapp started a utopian community in harmony, Indiana. In 1824, Rapp sold the community to Robert Owen, who started a new utopian community there. He named the new community "New Harmony." New Harmony lasted only two years. In 1825, Francis Wright started the community of Nashoba near Memphis, Tennessee. The Nashoba community ended in 1830. Brook Farm, a utopian farming community, lasted from 1841 to 1847. Modern Times, an anarchist community near New York City was started by Josiah Warren in 1851. It ended in 1857.

2. The space race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union has had its ups and downs." From 1957 to 1969, the Soviet Union was "first in space." The Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first space satellite, on October 4, 1957, and Yuri Gagarin, the Russian cosmonaut, became the first person to orbit the earth on April 12, 1961. The United States became "first in space" in 1969, when Apollo 11 landed on the moon with two American astronauts on July 20. The United States launched the first space station, Skylab, in 19".3. The Soviet Union and the United States worked together in space on July 17, 1975, when two Russian cosmonauts and two American astronauts had the first international meeting in space. After the meeting, the Soviet Union worked mostly on space stations such as Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, and the United States worked mostly on space shuttles such as Columbia and Challenger.

3. There are more old people in the world today because of an increase in medical services in the world. Today, more people can get medical services from doctors and nurses in hospitals and clinics. As a result, fewer people get fatal diseases such as yellow fever, malaria, cholera, and typhoid. This decrease in fatal diseases causes a decrease in the number of people who die from these diseases. Because of this decrease in the number of deaths, people can live longer today. As a result, there has been an increase in the number of old people living in the world today.

4. We can divide the world into two parts: the "north" (Europe, North America, Japan, etc.) and the "south" (Asia, Africa, Latin America, etc.). Most of the people in the world live in the south, but the people in the north have most of the money and services. According to the Overseas Development Council, there are 3.4 billion people in the south and only 1.1 billion people in the north People in the north have an average income of $6,468 per year, but the income of people in the south is $597 per year. The countries of the north pay $286 per person for education every year, and 99 percent of the people in the north can read and write. The countries of the south pay $18 per person for education every year, and only 52 percent of the people can read and write. The countries of the north pay $199 per person for medical services, and most of the people in the north live to be 72 years old. The countries of the south pay $6.50 per person for medical services, and most of the people live to be only 56 years old. The leaders of the north and south must work together to share the money and services of the world more equally.